Stoicism is a Hellenistic school of philosophy founded in the 3rd century BC by Zeno of Citium. It quickly became one of the most popular schools of thought throughout the Hellenistic world and in the subsequent Roman Empire, with philosophers like Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. The name Stoicism is derived from the Stoa Poilike (‘the painted colonnade’) in Athens, which was the place where the early Stoics gathered to discuss philosophy. Their founder Zeno purportedly was greatly admired by his contemporaries, if we are to believe Diogenes Laertius’ anecdotal report, which conveys a somewhat stereotypical image of the Stoic philosopher.
“The cold of winter and the ceaseless rain
Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers 7.1.27 (trans. by R.D. Hicks)
Come powerless against him: weak the dart
Of the fierce summer sun or racking pain
To bend that iron frame. He stands apart
Unspoiled by public feast and jollity:
Patient, unwearied night and day doth he
Cling to his studies of philosophy.”
Like the other Hellenistic schools, such as Cynicism, Epicureanism, and Skepticism, Stoicism was deeply rooted in the philosophical tradition of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. The Stoics took particular interest in their ideas on ethics (from the Greek ethikos, ‘relating to one’s character’), examining the question what constituted a good life. At the time, ethics mostly was a practical branch of philosophy, specifically aimed at improving one’s life. This was exactly what Stoicism also aimed to do: to enable people to live well.
Dealing with Negative Emotions
Today, the word stoic is often used denoting ‘one apparently or professedly indifferent to pleasure or pain’ (Meriam-Webster), but this is neither an accurate nor a fair assessment of Stoicism. In fact, the Stoics argued not that one should be indifferent to emotions nor that we should repress them, but rather that one should develop a healthy attitude towards them so that one does not get overwhelmed – especially towards negative emotions such as anger, resentment, and impatience. The basic idea is that our emotions are the product of our judgements. Once we change our attitude towards things, it will change the way we will react to them. It consequently presupposes that we are – indirectly – in control of our emotions and therefore also responsible for them.
“Surely every man will want to restrain any impulse towards angers when he realizes that it begins by inflicting harm, firstly, on himself!”
Seneca, On Anger 3.3
The early Stoic philosopher Chrysippus compared having an emotion with running too fast. Once you have a certain amount of momentum, it is difficult to stop. Meaning that you cannot repress an emotion when it arises, but that you can try to avoid letting the next emotion get any momentum. Suppose someone is really angry, then the emotion just takes over and it is no longer possible to reason with him. It is this being out of control that the Stoics warn against.
While it is perfectly fine to feel irritated or annoyed at times, we do not need anger when responding to things done to us. It is always better to react calmly and to assess the situation with reason. One can feel angry for a moment, but still refrain from acting recklessly. In short, the Stoics did not think that one could or should be indifferent towards negative emotions, nor that one should not have such emotions in the first place – they are only natural -, but rather that one should not act on them.
Cardinal Virtues
The Stoics argued that the highest good in life is eudaimonia (‘happiness’), which one can achieve by exercising the cardinal virtues and by living in accordance with nature (i.e. according to reason, accepting man’s role within the boundaries of the laws of nature). The four cardinal virtues of the Stoics derived from Plato (Republic 4.426-35) and were later systematically expounded by Aristotle. The idea of this core set of four basic virtues was so influential that it was later adopted by the Christian tradition.
- Wisdom: discerning the appropriate course of action in a given situation
- Courage: the ability to confront fear, uncertainty, and intimidation
- Justice: acting righteously and conscientiously towards others
- Moderation: the practice of self-control, thus refraining from indulgence
Wisdom was considered the highest of the four virtues, because – as Socrates said – it was good under all circumstances. Furthermore, in applying the other virtues to any given situation, one needs (practical) wisdom to choose what is an appropriate way to act. In essence, virtues were necessary for someone to lead a good life, according to the Stoics. Only when we have clearly defined our virtues, do we know how to live well. As long as we have not clearly defined our goals and morals, we cannot discern what is right and wrong.
“If a man does not know to what port he is steering,
Seneca, Letters from a Stoic 71.3
no wind is favourable to him.”
Dichotomy of Control
Possibly the most influential idea from Stoicism is the concept of the dichotomy of control. The Stoic philosopher and former slave Epictetus argued in his Handbook that ultimately almost everything is out of our control. He concludes that much of man’s unhappiness is the product of thinking that we have control over certain things while in reality we do not. Epictetus goes on to argue that we do in fact have control over our judgements – and, consequently, over the things that derive from our judgements. We often fail to notice we are making judgements, but they are important to keep track of, because they determine our desires, impulses, and – more generally – the way we act.
If we decide what is important to us, and adapt our judgements accordingly, it seems that we actually do have quite a lot of control over our lives. This does not entail that one should altogether disregard matters outside of one’s control. In fact, it is important to distinguish between what is inside or outside one’s sphere of control. Approach life as if you were an actor in a play. You have not chosen your role, nor do you decide what happens. So rather than fighting against these things you do not control, try to play your role as best you can. It is necessary that we acknowledge that there is much we simply have no control over, or else we are bound to be disappointed. Antipater, an early Stoic, came up with a beautiful analogy with archery.
“He does everything he can to hit the target, but his happiness does not depend on whether he hits the target or not. What matters is shooting well, for whether the arrow hits the target or not depends on other factors outside of the archer’s control.”
John Sellars, Stoicism and the Art of Archery
We may strive to live the best life we can, but we can never fully determine the outcome. So as long as we do not let our happiness depend on the product of our efforts, we should find solace in our ability to do the best we can in the things we do control.
Further Reading
As for further reading, I would recommend going straight to the sources (ad fontes). Would you like a short introduction, however, I cannot recommend John Sellars’ Lessons in Stoicism enough. Other than that, just dive right into the primary texts.
Besides some snippets and testimonia of earlier Stoics, you will mainly be reading Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. You cannot go wrong with any of the Oxford World’s Classics or Penguin editions.
